The Ancients

Rise of Islam

October 12, 2025

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  • The early Islamic polity formed and expanded during the peak of Sasanian conquest over the Near East (610-626 AD), meaning the nascent Muslim state developed within a Sasanian 'incubator' and initially had no contact with the Byzantines. 
  • The traditional narrative that the Sasanian and Byzantine Empires were too weak and exhausted to resist the Arab conquests is false; the Sasanian Empire collapsed suddenly following a coup against Khosrow II in 628 AD, leaving a power vacuum exploited by local Arab warlords who subsequently gained legitimacy from Medina. 
  • The early Islamic conquests mirrored the Sasanian territorial gains (Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Egypt), suggesting the expansion was driven by experienced local Arab forces familiar with the region, who were previously allied with the Sasanians, rather than being purely an external force from the Arabian periphery. 

Segments

Source Material and Historiography
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(00:04:44)
  • Key Takeaway: Studying the rise of Islam relies almost exclusively on internal Islamic sources, necessitating scholarly efforts to find corroborating or contradictory evidence from external traditions.
  • Summary: The primary sources for the rise of Islam and the early Caliphate traditionally originate from within Islamic historians. Scholars since the early 20th century have sought external sources to verify or challenge this main narrative. Byzantine sources are notably scarce during the critical 7th-century period, while Sasanian primary sources are also rare, leading to reliance on Syriac and Armenian accounts.
Early 7th Century West Asia Setup
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(00:08:25)
  • Key Takeaway: The century preceding Islam’s rise was marked by a ’total war’ phase between the Roman and Sasanian Empires, culminating in Sasanian dominance over the entire Near East by 619 AD.
  • Summary: The Euphrates River traditionally marked the border between the two superpowers, but the 6th century saw escalating conflict aiming for mutual destruction. Between 610 and 626 AD, the Sasanians conquered Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, breaching Constantinople’s walls and controlling the Eastern Mediterranean. The beginning of the Islamic state (Hijra in 622 AD) occurred while the Sasanians held this vast territory, surrounding the early Muslims.
Sasanian Religious Landscape
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(00:12:58)
  • Key Takeaway: The Sasanian Empire was religiously diverse, featuring Zoroastrianism as the majority faith in Iran, alongside significant populations of Christians (Syriac-using denominations), Jews, and Mandaeans in Mesopotamia.
  • Summary: Unlike the Byzantines, the Sasanians did not enforce a single state religion or exhibit supersessionist tendencies toward faiths. While Zoroastrianism was dominant in the Iranian heartland, Mesopotamia hosted large communities of various Christian denominations and Jews. Southern Mesopotamia was also a center for groups considered heretical by mainstream Christianity, such as the Mandaeans.
The Sasanian Collapse of 628 AD
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(00:18:47)
  • Key Takeaway: The Sasanian Empire effectively ended in February 628 AD with the coup and execution of Emperor Khosrow II, despite the empire appearing economically sound and militarily dominant just years prior.
  • Summary: Emperor Heraclius’s successful campaigns, culminating in the Battle of Nineveh (627 AD), destabilized the Sasanian nobility, leading to the removal of Khosrow II. This event destroyed the dynasty’s control, marking the true end of Sasanian imperial power, even though the final military defeat against the Muslims occurred later in 642 AD.
Formation of the Medinan State (622-632)
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(00:24:24)
  • Key Takeaway: The Medinan state, established after the Hijra in 622 AD, grew from a religious movement focused on internal social justice into a small kingdom by 632 AD, attracting tribal loyalty through personal charisma.
  • Summary: During the period when Sasanians controlled the Near East (619-628 AD), the Muslim community in the Hejaz operated in a relative power vacuum, focusing on establishing the city-state of Medina. Muhammad’s ministry shifted from purely religious appeals to state-building, culminating in the conquest of Mecca and the expansion of influence toward the north just before his death in 632 AD.
The Arab Conquests Under Umar (630s)
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(00:36:04)
  • Key Takeaway: The rapid Arab conquests of Syria, Palestine, and Iraq during the 630s under Caliph Umar were facilitated by the prior Sasanian military structure and the subsequent collapse of central Sasanian authority.
  • Summary: Caliph Umar organized the major military campaigns using experienced commanders like Khalid ibn Walid, conquering key Byzantine and Sasanian territories within a decade. The immense wealth of these conquered centers—Syria, Mesopotamia—astonished the early Muslims, creating administrative challenges regarding the distribution of booty. The success was not due to the weakness of the empires, but likely due to the familiarity of the Arab forces with the region.
Continuity of Sasanian Institutions
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(00:49:13)
  • Key Takeaway: Following the conquest, the early Caliphate largely maintained Sasanian administrative and economic structures, including the taxation system and coinage, for decades.
  • Summary: Sasanian institutions, such as the tax reform system and the authority of local gentry (Dikhans), remained largely intact under Muslim rule, as the conquerors needed to manage the existing infrastructure. Coinage was so similar that early Muslim coins featured the Sasanian emperor’s image and a fire altar, only later developing distinct Islamic iconography. Middle Persian remained the language of administration in Mesopotamia until the late 7th or early 8th century.
The End of the Two-Superpower World
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(00:59:14)
  • Key Takeaway: The rise of Islam fundamentally transformed the world order by eliminating the Sasanian Empire and reducing Byzantium to a small regional power, thereby unifying Eurasia under a single economic zone.
  • Summary: The disappearance of the Sasanian Empire and the contraction of Byzantium ended the long-standing division of West Asia along the Euphrates River. This unification created a vast economic zone stretching from France to China, integrating gold and silver currency flows previously separated by the imperial border. This new unified zone became the richest area in Western Eurasia, realizing economic potential previously blocked by the two superpowers.